BEIJING NATIONAL STADIUM

situated at the Olympic Green, the stadium worth US$428 million. The design was awarded to a submission from the Swiss architecture firm Herzog & de Meuron in April 2003 after a behest process that included 13 final submissions. The design, which took up from the study of Chinese ceramics, introducing steel beams in order to hide supports for the retractable roof; giving the stadium the look of a bird's nest. Leading Chinese artist Ai Weiwei was the artistic consultant on the project The retractile roof was later removed from the design after inspiring the stadium's most recognizable aspect. Ground was broken on 24 December 2003 and the stadium protocal  opened on 28 June 2008. A shopping mall and a hotel are planned to be constructed in improving usage of the stadium, which has had trouble attracting events, football and otherwise, behind the Olympics The eastern and western stands of Beijing National Stadium are higher than northern and southern stands, in order to improve visibleness. A -day rainwater collector is located near the stadium; after purification of water is done, it is used throughout and around the stadium. Pipes placed under the playing surface gather heat, in the winter to warm the stadium and coldness in the summer to cool the stadium. The stadium's design importantly called for a capacity of 100,000 people; however 9,000 were removed during a simplification of the design. The new total of 91,000 was cleared further when 11,000 temporary seats were removed after the 2008 Olympics; bringing the stadium's capacity to 80,000. The far end seat is 460 feet (140 meters) from center field. Temperature and airflow of every surface were advanced to increase ventilation.

Beijing National Stadium hosted the Opening and Closing Ceremonies, athletic events, football  heat up final of the 2008 Summer Olympics from 8 to 24 August 2008. The stadium also hosted the Opening and Closing parties and athletic events of the 2008 Summer Paralympics from 6 to 17 September 2008. Though designed for track & field events of the Olympics, the stadium forwards to host sporting events, such as football, afterwards. A shopping mall and a hotel, with rooms looking the fields, are planned to help increase use after the Olympics. Li stated, "This will become the most usefull public space in Beijing."

URUGUAY CIRCULAR BRIDGE

URUGUAY CIRCULAR BRIDGE

The bridge spanning Uruguay's Laguna Garzón is hardly uncomplicated.

In fact, it's a circle.

Designed by Rafael  Architects — the same solid behind Uruguay's glossy Carrasco Airport and the whisper-thin New York skyscraper 432 Park Ave. — the Laguna Garzón bridge was constructed with a clear-cut plan in mind: get more people across the lagoon and slow down their vehicles in the operation

Before the architecture firm came along, the only way travelers could traverse Laguna Garzón was via a introductory raft crossing. One by one, cars would load onto individual rafts that could transport them to the other side.

 now bridge in place, more than 1,000 vehicles will cross a day, according to Consultatio Real Estate.Each half of the circular bridge is made up of a one-way road that swings out wide into the lagoon. As inimical to ordinary bridges, where motorists can speed down a mile-long straightaway, the Laguna Garzón bridge forces people to slow down.

The entire esteemed project cost $11 million, $10 million of which came from Argentinian real-estate developer Eduardo Constantini.

According to Constantini, the bridge will also serve as a tourist attraction, observation deck, fishing spot, and learned link between the counties of Rocha and Maldonado.

"It is an iconic architectural piece that will be a impetus factor in driving the development of Rocha's coastline," the developer said in an email statement to Tech Insider. "Just 35% of the stretch between the two lagoons can be developed and 50% must be devoted to green areas."The bridge is meant to usher in a new passage of Uruguayan culture, Constantini explains. Maldonado county is already justly developed, while Rocha remains mostly unused

Six years worth of public hearings and agreements went into building the round piece of infrastructure. Construction began in September 2014 and the bridge is now open to the public, a little over a year later.

ITAIPU DAM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

ITAIPU DAM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE



ITAIPU dam is considered as one of The Seven Wonders Of The Civil Engineering World series, . This potence emerging dam is located on the Parana River on the border between Brazil and Paraguay. The name ‘Itaipu’ refers ‘the sounding stone’ in the Guaraní language.

hydroelectricity is a term  referring to electricity which is generated through the use of the gravitational force of moving water (either by falling or flowing). Hydroelectricity is the most extensively used form of renewable energy on the planet and is expected to increase its usage by 3.1% each year for the next two decades.  being a rich renewable energy source another benefit of creating electricity in this way is that the cost is relatively low in comparison with other energy-production methods.

The consultant engineer for this  project was Piero Sembenalli who look after the project for the seven years of construction. The building of this structure cost £13.5 bn and providing jobs  to 40,000 workers over the construction period following by constructing new houses, schools and hospitals  so that they could live near by to the project. Before construction on the dam could begin, the engineers had to plan a way of shifting the course of the Parana River. This part of the project took three years as it required workers to cut a 1.3 mile long, 300 foot deep channel for the river to reroute to; this process required the removal of fifty million tonnes of earth and rock.The plans of the dam showed that it was not to be supported by any bodily or natural features and due to the water pressure calculated to be equal to the strength of 4000 bulldozers, the dam had to bear the weight of 61 million tonnes so that water could not move it.

In terms of annual energy production, The Itaipu Dam is the world’s largest managing hydroelectric facility. There are currently twenty generator units that are installed in the dam, ten of these units  produce 50 Hz for Paraguay and the other ten unites generate at 60 Hz for Brazil. Brazil receives more of the energy in comprance to paraguay. To give you an idea of the huge amount of energy that this dam produces, if the quota of energy that produced by this every year was used to power the electricity in London, it would fulfil the city’s electricity needs continuously  for the span of  three years

TAJ MAHAL

The Taj Mahal; Arabic for "Crown of Palaces", named as an ivory-white marble mausoleum at india on the south bank of the "Yamuna" river in the city of Agra near the delhi. It was instruct in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658), to house the tomb of his the favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 42-acre of complex, which carry a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens belted on 3 sides by a crenellated wall.

Interior view of the vaulted dome            The false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan         over the tombs of Shah Jahan                          in the main chamber  
and Mumtaz.



Construction of the mausoleum was essentially enup in the year 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for another ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is accepted to have been endup in its entirety in the year of 1653 at a cost estimated at that time to be around "32 million" rupees, which in 2015 would be approximately estimated "52.8 billion" rupees (US $827 million). The development project workers employed some above 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of designer led by the court architect to the emperor, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.

Architecture and design:

The Taj Mahal absorb and expands on the design culture of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific motivation came from the successful Timurid and Mughal constructions addind; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),  Humayun's burial, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's burial (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings are primarilyhas  constructed of purely red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of the white marble inlaid with the semi-precious stones. Buildings are under his patronage was reached new levels of refinement.

Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal
Shah Jahan
"Shah jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution
Mumtaz Mahal
Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal
Tomb
The burial(tomb) is the central focus and famoused of the entire complex attractive of the Taj Mahal. It is a large and bigg, white and white marble structure standing on a square podium and having of a equal building construction with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and at last finial. Like most Mughal burial, the basic elements are Persian in origin.

The base structure is a large multi-gaping cube with chamfered corners forming an unsymentrical eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted entrance with two equally shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of deformed pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered of  corner areas, making the design completely equal on all sides of the building. 4 minarets frame the tomb(burial), one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.

TRUSSES AND TYPES

In engineering truss is  member which takes transverse loads falling on them, in general a truss is a structure that "is made up of of two-force members , where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single member". A "two-force member" is a structural component where force is applied to only two points. Although this meticulous definition allows the members to have any shape connected in any stable configuration, trusses typically consists of the combination of five or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints termed to as nodes. In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are contemplate to act only at t nodes results in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments (torques) are precise excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members.

A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are  top chords and are typically in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords and are in tension, the interior beams are termed as webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels.

HOOVER DAM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

HOOVER DAM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE



Hoover Dam, once in the past known as Boulder Dam, is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border ends between the United States of Nevada and Arizona. construction span of hoover dam is 5 years ( 1931 - 1936) during the Great Depression of this dam was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by  Franklin.D(president). Roosevelt. Its construction was the result of a massive effort including thousands of workers, and cost over one hundred lives. The dam was contentious named after President Herbert Hoover.

Since about 1900, the Black Canyon and besides Boulder Canyon had been carryout for their budding to support a dam that would control floods, providing irrigation water and  for producing hydroelectric power. In 1928, Congress approved the project. The winning bid in building the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc., which  starts construction of the dam in early 1931. Such a huge concrete structure had not ever been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The sultry summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented  some sort of difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies revolve over the dam to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than 2 years ahead of schedule.

Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead, the biggest reservoir in the United States by volume. The dam is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed on the basis workers on the construction project, about 30 mi (48 km) southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada. The dam's generators used in providing power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Hoover Dam is termed to be a on of the major tourist attraction; nearly a million of people tour the dam each year. The heavily travelled U.S. 93 ran along the dam's crest until October 2010.